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CHAPTER 1 TRPV channels may therefore be involved in the mechanism but downstream of those mitochondria-based events. There are also reports suggesting that light directly interacts with molecules such as transforming growth factor beta (Arany et al., 2014), Copper/Zinc Superoxide dismutase (Vladimirov et al., 1988), or even ATP (Amat et al., 2005). However, there is limited support from subsequent research, and it is very likely that they accompany, or are even downstream of, the mitochondrial pathway. 1.2.3 Therapeutic effects of PBM Studies of tissue optics (Section 1.2.1) and PBM mechanisms (Section 1.2.2) support the notion that wavelengths within optical window are optimal for potential treatment effects. Since its first discovery, PBM has been applied in a wide range of conditions to help reduce inflammation, reduce pain, and accelerate recovery. The current section will review the benefits of PBM using red to NIR light on cell proliferation (Section 1.2.3.1), apoptosis (Section 1.2.3.2), inflammation (Section 1.2.3.3), and pain (Section 1.2.3.4). The importance of these benefits in different neural and non-neural injuries will also be discussed. 1.2.3.1 Cell proliferation PBM has been shown to enhance cell proliferation in a number of cell types that are associated with the macroscopic effects of PBM. Two cell types that have been studied extensively are keratinocytes and fibroblasts, both of which are essential for epithelial healing (Werner et al., 2007). Irradiation with red light has shown to accelerate wound healing by stimulating the proliferation in both keratinocytes (Sperandio et al., 2015) and fibroblasts (Esmaeelinejad et al., 2014; Hawkins and Abrahamse, 2005). This wound healing effect of PBM is largely beneficial in oral mucositis (Cauwels and Martens, 2011; Lima et al., 2010) and skin ulcers (Kaviani et al., 2011). Apart from epithelial cells, vascular endothelial cells have also been shown to proliferate faster (Szymanska et al., 2013) to induce angiogenesis (Dungel et al., 2014; Tuby et al., 2006), and reduce tissue loss in myocardial infarction (Ad and Oron, 2001) following PBM. PBM has also shown beneficial effects in both oral and dental disorders (Amid et al., 2014; Carroll et al., 2014), partially by promoting osteoblast proliferation (Huertas et al., 2014; Stein et al., 2005). 1.2.3.2 Anti-apoptosis In many diseases and conditions, a variety of cells die from stress and/or toxic compounds, which can lead to irreversible negative outcomes. PBM has been shown to be cytoprotective under some toxic conditions (Eells et al., 2003; Liang et al., 2006), most likely through up-regulation of CCO and therefore metabolic processes in cells (Wong-Riley et al., 2005). Its cytoprotection effect is highly valued in the nervous system where there is limited regeneration. Photoreceptor cell death is prevalent in age-related macular degeneration (Curcio et al., 1996). Treatment with light has been shown to inhibit photoreceptor death (Chu-Tan et al., 2016) and improve visual acuity in 23PDF Image | Effects of Red Light Treatment on Spinal Cord Injury
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