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potentially confounding spectra. An NI with a moderate to high R:FR effectively inhibits flowering of SDPs (Runkle and Heins, 2006; Vince, 1969). For example, a 4-h NI with an R:FR of 0.66 or higher inhibited flowering of chrysanthemum (Dendranthema × grandiflorum), whereas a 4-h NI with an R:FR of 0.28 or lower was not perceived as an LD (Craig and Runkle, 2013). Similarly, flowering of the SDP perilla (Perilla ocymoides) was strongly suppressed under a 10-h SD with a 10-min NI provided by R LEDs compared to no NI or a 10-min NI provided by FR LEDs (Choi, 2003). The efficacy of NI lighting also depends on its intensity. For example, flowering of chrysanthemum was completely inhibited when the intensity of R light, delivered as a DE, was above 1.4 μmol·m−2·s−1 (Hong et al., 2013). Similarly, as the light intensity of an effective 4-h NI (e.g., from R or white LEDs) increased, flowering time of chrysanthemum increased (Ho et al., 2012). Therefore, R or white LEDs and fluorescent (FL) lamps can create LDs that delay flowering of SDPs (Padhye and Runkle, 2011). Some LDPs flower most rapidly when DE or NI lighting contains both R and FR light. For example, an NI with an R:FR of 0.66 or 1.07 most effectively promoted flowering of petunia (Petunia ×hybrida) ‘Easy Wave White’ and snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) (Craig and Runkle, 2012), which confirms previous studies performed with broad-spectrum conventional lamps (Thomas and Vince-Prue, 1997). Replacement of conventional INC lamps with FR-deficient FL lamps can delay flowering of these and additional LDPs (Lane et al., 1965; Runkle et al., 2012). Many commercial greenhouse growers in the U.S. produce a wide range of crops in the same greenhouse environment. Therefore, an effective photoperiodic lighting strategy must regulate flowering of all photoperiodic species. A 7-h DE (to create a 16-h LD) and a 4-h NI were almost always equally effective at promoting flowering of LDPs (Craig, 2012). An NI provided by B, R, or FR LEDs did not stimulate complete, rapid flowering of a variety of LDPs 10PDF Image | LED REGULATE FLOWERING OF PHOTOPERIODIC ORNAMENTAL CROPS
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