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Y.-Y. Huang and others FIGURE 4. When NO is released from its binding to heme iron and copper centers in cytochrome c oxidase by the action of light, oxygen is allowed to rebind to these sites and respiration is restored to its former level leading to increased ATP synthesis. monophosphate (cGMP). This finding suggested that properly designed illumination devices may be effective, noninvasive therapeutic agents for patients who would benefit from increased localized NO availability 2.6. Reactive oxygen species and gene transcription Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are involved in the signaling pathways from mitochondria to nuclei. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are very small molecules that include oxy- gen ions such as superoxide, free radicals such as hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide, and organic peroxides. They are highly with biologi- cal molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids and unsaturated lipids. ROS form as a natural by-product of the normal metabolism of oxygen and have important roles in cell signaling (Storz 2007), regulating nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, enzyme activation and cell cycle pro- gression (Brondon et al. 2005). LLLT was reported to produce a shift in overall cell redox potential in the direction of greater oxidation (Karu 1999) and increased ROS generation and cell redox activity have been demonstrated (Alexandratou et al. 2002; Chen et al. 2009b; Grossman et al. 1998; Lavi et al. 2003; Lubart et al. 2005; Pal et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2008). These cytosolic responses may in turn induce transcriptional changes. Several transcription factors are regulated by changes in cellular redox state. But the most important one is nuclear factor B (NF-B). Figure 5 illustrates the effect of redox-sensitive transcription factor NF-κBPDF Image | BIPHASIC DOSE RESPONSE IN LOW LEVEL LIGHT THERAPY
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