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Molecules 2020, 25, 4411 3 of 14 agents toward different human pathogenic [9]. Jania rubens had antimicrobial activity toward thirty-two multidrug-resistant bacterial isolates which related to its long-chain saturated fatty acids, for example n-hexadecanoic acid or found in ester form such as docosanoic acid 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester and hexanedioic acid, dioctyl ester were responsible for antibacterial ability [8]. Agar and carrageenan oligosaccharides from red seaweed had antimicrobial ability against different human pathogenic microbe [10]. Gloiopeltis tenax extracts using supercritical CO2 modified with ethanol, primarily composed of fatty acids, phenols sesquiterpenes, ketones and sterols exhibited remarkable antimicrobial activity [11]. Brominated cyclic diterpenes from red alga Sphaerococcus coronopifolius has antibacterial activity toward methicillin-resistant bacteria Staphylococcus aureus strains [12]. Laurencia spp. synthesized halogenated biomolecules with antimicrobial, and cytotoxic potential [13]. Red alga Plocamium and Chondrococcus secreted polyhalogenated monoterpenes which exhibit antimicrobial and antitumor [14]. The red seaweed from India Southern Coasts showed higher antifungal ratio “37%” than brown “33.3%” and green seaweed “8.3%” [15]. The Methanolic extract of Corallina mediterranea, Hypnea musciformis and Laurencia papillosa had antifungal activity toward human pathogenic fungi Aspergillus and Candida [16]. The new diterpene, sphaerodactylomelol fraction 2 extracted from Sphaerococcus coronopifolius exhibited a highest antifungal activity toward Candida albicans [17]. The antifungal efficacy of methanolic extracts of Acanthaphora spicifra had a similar activity of commercial drugs like ciprofloxacin and amphotericin [18]. 3. Antiviral Activity Macroalgae have antiviral properties that provide a protective effect against several virus species by obstructing the spread of the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted viruses, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) and genital warts [19]. Sulfated polysaccharides “SPs” and phenolic compounds from seaweed have better antiviral activity than other bioactive substances via preventing viral adsorption (simultaneous-treatment assay) and replication (post-treatment assay) [20]. The mechanism of macroalgal polysaccharides against viral diseases is focusing on the viral attachment phase via 1) attaching immediately with virions and/or 2) connecting to the respective protein receptors as explained in Figures 2 and 3) immunomodulators that activate Natural killer cells (NK) or prompt immune reactions [21]. Oligopolysaccharides agars and carrageenans from different red seaweed species showed antiviral capacities [3]. The crude polysaccharides from red algae (Pterocladia capillacea and Laurencia obtusa) from Abo Qir, Alexandria showed antiviral efficiency against hepatitis C (HCV) in vitro [22]. Carrageenans from Gigartina skottsbergii may act as models for structuring novel anti- HSV 1 and 2 agents through the mechanism of blocking viral attachment. Also, it could raise the efficiency of NK cells and increase the lymphocytes generation amount [23]. Iota carrageenan from Solieria chordalis had antiviral efficiency toward HSV1 [24]. Polyphenol-rich extracts synthesized by Mexican red seaweed Solieria filiformis have major virucidal abilities toward the Measles virus and avoid virus dissemination in vitro [25].PDF Image | Therapeutic Uses of Red Macroalgae
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