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Molecules 2020, 25, 4411 7 of 14 PUFA from red seaweed had anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory properties [59]. Van Ginneken et al. [60] recommend that the n-6/n-3 ratio between fatty acids should < 10 in the diet, which preventing cardiovascular, inflammatory, and nervous system disorders. 7. Analgesic and Antipyretic Activities Algal terpenes, peptides, and sulfated polysaccharides act as painkiller agent [61]. The red alga Dichotomaria obtusata aqueous extract inhibited the production of endogenous mediators in response to acetic acid, due to its metabolites, such as polysaccharides and phenols [62]. The analgesic activity of red algae Vidalia obtusaloba and Ceratodictyon spongiosum was related to bromophenolic and peptide metabolites [63]. Antipyretics reduce the elevated body temperature. Macroalgal bioactive compounds act as novel and safe for antipyretic agents, e.g., flavonoids like baicalin, which indicated antipyretic impact by suppressing Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α) and hindrance of arachidonic acid peroxidation that decrease the prostaglandin ratio and reduce fever and pains [64]. The possible antipyretic mechanism of macroalgae may be due to the inhibition of prostaglandin, such as paracetamol by blocking the cyclooxygenase enzyme activity and/or inhibition of any of mediators of pyrexia [65]. The antipyretic capacity of Hypnea musciformis and Gracilaria dura methanolic extract was dose-dependent on albino mice and caused a decrease in body temperature up to 4 h following its administration, due to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, compared with standard paracetamol [66]. 8. Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic Activities Anticoagulants are defined as a substance that treats or stops blood clots and minimizes the risk of stroke, cardiac disappointment, and obstruction within blood vessels. The anticoagulant capacity of seaweed may be attributed to its polysaccharides composition, molecular weight, sulfate content, and position, e.g., uronic acids, carrying a negative charge, which gives it the capacity to bind calcium ions, and therefore, prevents the formation of a clot [67]. The algal anticoagulation mechanism may be due to their direct impact on thrombin and enhancing of antithrombin III.; Moreover, algal polysaccharides delayed activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), proposing the obstacle of intrinsic factors, extended essential pathway-dependent coagulating times, and decreased platelet aggregation. Commonly, galactans from red seaweed could be alternative sources of new anticoagulant agents [68]. Sulfated galactans from Grateloupia indica had anticoagulant efficiency as heparin [69]. Carrageenans from red species contains –O-SO3H group, which plays a vital role in blood clotting inhibition by inhibiting platelet aggregation [70]. Carrageenans had about one-fifteenth of the heparin action. The λ-carrageenan exhibited superior anticoagulant ability than κ-carrageenan relating to its higher sulfate content [71]. Depolymerization of agars extracted from Porphyra yezoensis and Gracilaria birdiae by ultrasound assisted increased the anticoagulant activity [47]. 9. Antidiabetic Activity Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder resulting from an imperfection in insulin secretion and/or insulin activity. It is an almost coarse serious metabolic disease in the world. Seaweed species have a unique antidiabetic way in search of natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitors that reduce the absorption of glucose from the gut itself [6]. However, seaweed species have α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory actions [72]. The sulfated galactans extracted from Gracilaria opuntia was responsible for the antidiabetic properties through the deactivation of α-glucosidase, a-amylase, and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 [73]. Laurencia dendroidea could be a natural source for the production of antidiabetic agents [74]. Chen et al. [75] demonstrated glucosidase inhibitory action of agar polysaccharides, which increased the acid hydrolysis process. Mittal et al. [57] demonstrated the antidiabetic efficiency of R-PE and R-PC from Chondrus crispus, Gelidium pusillum, Heterosiphonia japonica, and Palmaria palmata. The organic extracts of red algaePDF Image | Therapeutic Uses of Red Macroalgae
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