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Turner (2003) discusses encoding/decoding, promoting the idea that audiences are not passive dupes and that their reception of messages is influenced by factors including race, religion and socio-economic status. “So there is bound to be a lack of fit between aspects of the production and reception processes – between the producer’s and the audience’s interpretation of the message – that will produce misunderstandings or ‘distortions.’” He claims that both the construction and reception of a message are “...an active, interpretive and social event...” (p. 73). Further, when a message is decoded the receiver may take one (or a combination) of three readings. They may take the preferred reading, which Hall (1980) also refers to as the “dominant” meaning. “The domains of ‘preferred meanings’ have the whole social order embedded in them as a set of meanings, practices and beliefs...” (p. 134). In this sense, the reader does not oppose any of what is being communicated; they would not dispute the claims made in an advertisement or the promises made in a political campaign. Secondly, a recipient might embrace a “negotiated” meaning of a given message. They may believe or agree with some of what is being transmitted, but not in full. Hall explained the negotiated meaning as follows: Decoding within the negotiated version contains a mixture of adaptive and oppositional elements: it acknowledges the legitimacy of the hegemonic definitions to make grand significations (abstract), while at a more restricted, situational (situated) level, it makes its own ground rules – it operates with exceptions to the rule (p. 137). Lastly, a reader might choose to take an oppositional reading. In this case, they would be completely opposed to a given message. “...it is possible for a viewer perfectly to understand both the literal and the connotative inflection given by a discourse but to decode the message in a 41PDF Image | EXPLORING HAUL VIDEOS ON YOUTUBE: A COLLECTIVE CASE STUDY APPROACH
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